A Religious Persecution in Africa: Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), Religious Violence and Islamic Extremism in Central Africa
By Amber Antony, Rise to Peace Fellow
There is such diversity in Africa regarding religion that it almost makes no sense as to why in present day there would be targeted religious atrocities carried out in countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Nigeria, or Uganda. Yet, just this year alone, there was the Kasanga massacre which left 70 innocent townspeople decapitated with machetes, the Komanda Catholic church attack killing at least 38 churchgoers, and the Yelewata massacre, leaving at least 100 people dead. Each one of these attacks, along with countless others, was claimed by the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) under Musu Seka Baluku or jihadist militant groups like ISIS/ISIL. The bloodshed of people in Africa at the hands of extremists is almost immeasurable, and what is incredibly concerning is the fact that those who are residing in predominantly rural Christian villages seem to be at an even greater risk of being attacked or, ultimately, killed. Christianity, Islam, and various traditional African religions are being practiced throughout Africa, yet due to Islamic extremists, and an already fragile environment, it puts each
citizen into a high-risk category of being the next victims of terrorism.
A Brief History of Religion in Africa from Abrahamic Religious Practices to the African Traditional Religious Practices and How Terrorism Has Become Supreme
One of the oldest continents on Earth, Africa is home to a very diverse religious landscape that consists of Christianity, Islam, and African Traditional Religions (ATR) that are specific to the various ethnic groups across the continent. It is important to acknowledge that while there is such diversity, it also largely depends on the region regarding as to whether it has more Abrahamic influence (i.e., Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) or if ATR is more widely practiced in places that have been strong adherent traditionalists in honoring their native spirituality. It is fascinating, however, to observe the vibrant history of Africa and how over a thousand years ago, religions that were previously unknown to an entire land were slowly being introduced, but it has also come at a great cost to the people to be able to even practice religious freedom without some type of violent reprisal from internal forces.
In Central Africa, for example, sits the DRC (Democratic Republic of Congo). This is a country where Christianity is widely practiced, so much so that 95.1 percent of the population identified as Christian. It has been a violent and hostile environment for Christians in the DRC even before the 2014 village attacks throughout the DRC which left over 30 people dead, which can be largely attributed to the Islamic State of Ira and Syria-Democratic Republic of the Congo (ISIS-DRC), also known as the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF). However, it is not just Central Africa that is on the receiving end of being targeted by the ADF. Nigeria, located in West Africa, is also home to many Christians, as is Uganda in the Eastern part of Africa—all living under the constant threat of being hunted, killed, and displaced in their own country.
Even beyond Christianity there is a massive religious genocide happening to the African people from both terrorists and the various militant groups. Those that consider themselves to be Muslim, which is second to Christianity in being the most practiced religion in Africa, are oftentimes a target for terrorist and militant groups alike. According to the United Nations in a report for their Human Rights section, it detailed two major attacks taking place in 2024 and 2025 against Fulani Muslims in Central African Republic (CAR); this attack was carried out by Azandé Ani Kpi Gbé (Azanikpigbe). The January 2025 attack in a village in Makoko, situated in the DRC, was perpetrated by ADF. In the Makoko attack, it left 10 people slaughtered, including the local tribal chief, Mwami Kasereka Kasimba.
It is critical to note that in some of these recorded conflicts there are multiple underlying factors aside from religion that contribute to the overall reasoning behind why the attacks were committed in the first place, such as a power play for land and resources. Regardless, the overall sentiment remains that there is such religious persecution that has been actively occurring, that nomadic people from faraway villages to secular urbanites are not safe from sectarian violence.
Overview of Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) and Their Role as Islamic Extremists
The ADF has been in operation for nearly 30 years having been formed in 1995 by Jamil Mukulu. Prior to 1995 and the formation of ADF, Mukulu was already gaining notoriety in Uganda for being a rebel who was carrying out attacks on multiple entities using guerilla warfare tactics against Ugandan government and military officials. However, Mukulu was already on the path to deep radicalization. At some point during the early 1990’s, it is suspected that he had encountered then al-Qaeda leader, Osama bin Laden, who had initially left Saudi Arabia in 1991. It is widely thought that Mukulu received training from bin Laden and further indoctrination into Islam, specifically Salafi-jihadism. This would make the most sense as to why and how ADF escalated from being a rebel militant group to full Islamic extremists who would go on to attack and kill hundreds, if not thousands, of innocent civilians all in the name of establishing an Islamic State. Presently, ADF is under the leadership of Musu Seka Baluku who became commander after Mukulu was taken into custody in 2015.
It is critical to point out that even while under Mukulu’s leadership, ADF was able to embrace Islamic jihadism, but under Baluku’s leadership ADF has transformed into almost two factions of pre-ADF and post-ADF, with the post-ADF almost being comparable to a smaller al-Qaeda. ADF has been able to grow in numbers, reach, and if it is even possible, methods to commit even more atrocities. Thus, circling back to the destruction of today where ADF is seemingly uncontrollable, leaving a dire humanitarian situation with little to no recourse.
Room for Terrorism: How Africa Has Been Affected by Jihadism
In many locations in Africa, especially in the DRC, populations are already plagued with sicknesses, poverty, violence, and government instability. Each and every one of these issues have been further compounded by terrorism. Jihadism, however, is not necessarily new to Africa. In both 18th and 19th century West Africa, the Fulani revolution carried out by the Fula jihads, or the Muslim Fulani people, was a precursor of things to come. The Fulani revolution, however, was fuelled by a mixture of revolting against colonialism and a desire for more power, which ultimately led to a betrayal against fellow tribes like the Hausa people. The Sokoto Caliphate would also emerge from this and continue to be a major influence in present day.
However, there are varying levels to jihadism, and not all jihadism is equal. For example, al-Qaeda and ISIS/ISIL have been a heavy influence in furthering the jihadism that is seen throughout Africa today, but this influence adheres to Salafi-jihadism, which is more of a purist ideology that focuses on bringing about a caliphate that is global through the means of violence. The African people have continued to pay the price at the hands of these jihadists, suffering death, displacement, and/or assimilation. The actual cities and villages have been further pushed into disarray and destruction because governments, militaries, and law enforcement officials are unable to effectively combat the constant threat of terrorism. Therefore, Africa continues to sit in a constant state of distress.
Conclusion
There is an ancient beauty to Africa with its multifaceted history, nomadic tribes scattered across its continent, diverse population, and the most incredible wildlife, and yet the constant onslaught of terrorism throughout places like the DRC is destroying peace within its own borders that could otherwise be achievable. Religion does play an integral role in what the people of the DRC or Uganda are facing in terms of being killed because of their Christian faith, and the ADF is largely motivated by their radicalized belief in Islam, but beyond the religious persecution of Christians or the ideology of a group of people, ADF continues to indiscriminately kill and pillage through villages without regard to life at all. An important question to propose is how can one of the oldest places on earth be saved from further turmoil and exploitation at the hands of both foreign and domestic terrorists?
